Shallow trench isolation for active devices mounted on a CMOS substrate

ABSTRACT

The present invention includes operational amplifier for an active pixel sensor that detects optical energy and generates an analog output that is proportional to the optical energy. The active pixel sensor operates in a number of different modes including: signal integration mode, the reset integration mode, column reset mode, and column signal readout mode. Each mode causes the operational amplifier to see a different output load. Accordingly, the operational amplifier includes a variable feedback circuit to provide compensation that provides sufficient amplifier stability for each operating mode of the active pixel sensor. For instance, the operational amplifier includes a bank of feedback capacitors, one or more of which are selected based on the operating mode to provide sufficient phase margin for stability, but also considering gain and bandwidth requirements of the operating mode.

CROSS REFERENCE TO RELATED APPLICATIONS

This application is a continuation of U.S. Non-Provisional Patentapplication Ser. No. 12/461,950, filed Aug. 28, 2009, now allowed, whichis a continuation of U.S. Non-Provisional patent application Ser. No.11/192,372, filed Jul. 29, 2005, now U.S. Pat. No. 7,605,854, whichclaims the benefit of U.S. Provisional Patent Application No.60/600,387, filed on Aug. 11, 2004, each of which are incorporatedherein by reference in their entirety.

BACKGROUND OF THE INVENTION

1. Field of the Invention

The present invention generally relates an operational amplifier forimage processing on a semiconductor circuit, and more specifically to anoperational amplifier having selectable compensation feedback to insurestability for various modes of image processing.

2. Background Art

Conventional digital imaging devices, such as a digital camera or anoptical mouse, utilize a photo-diode or an array of photo diodes tocapture and record optical energy. The photo-diode converts opticalenergy to electrical energy (voltage or current) that can later bedigitized and further processed.

The sensitivity of the photo-diode is limited by the “dark current” thatis generated by the photo-diode. The dark current is the amount ofcurrent that is generated when no light is incident on the photo-diode,and it is desirable that the dark current be minimized or eliminatedbecause it reduces the sensitivity of the imaging device. Dark currentis especially a problem for digital camera and camcorder applications.

In order to minimize “dark current”, conventional imaging devices oftenutilize a specialized semiconductor process that is designed to minimizedark current in the junction of the photo-detector. For instance, thespecialized process can be a CMOS process that has been optimized tominimize dark current. However, these specialized CMOS processes areoften costly, and reduce yield. What is needed is an imaging deviceconfiguration that can be implemented using a conventional CMOS process,but that also minimizes dark current in the imaging device.

Prior to being digitized, the electrical energy from the photo diodearray is often amplified with an analog amplifier. In consumerapplications (such as cameras, etc.), the photo diode array has severaloperating modes such as reset, etc. Each of these operating modes causesdifferent loading and bandwidth requirements on the analog amplifier.However, the analog amplifier must remain stable across these variousoperating modes. Accordingly, what is needed is analog amplifier that isconfigured to remain stable across the various operating modes of adigital imaging device, while also maximizing gain and bandwidth.

Further, over-exposure or saturation can occur when relatively brightsources of light are captured next to darker sources of light. Whenusing multiple photo-diodes, it is possible for the output of onephoto-diode (or a group of photo-diodes) to capture sufficiently brightlight to saturate another photo-diode or group of photo-diodes, whichdegrades the overall image captured.

Conventional digital cameras utilize back-end software algorithms toaddress this saturation problem. However, these software tools tend toslow the operation of the digital camera due to the calibration periodthat is required.

Therefore, what is needed is a digital imaging device that can preventover exposure at the hardware level to improve speed and bandwidth ofthe digital optical device.

BRIEF SUMMARY OF THE INVENTION

The present invention includes an active pixel sensor that detectsoptical energy and generates an analog output that is proportional tothe optical energy. In embodiments, the active pixel sensor can beimplemented in a standard CMOS process, without the need for aspecialized optical process.

The active pixel sensor includes a reset FET, a photo-diode, a sourcefollower, an operational amplifier, and a current source. Thephoto-diode is coupled to the source of the reset FET at a dischargenode. The drain of the reset FET is coupled to a power supply VDD. Thedischarge node is also coupled to the gate input of the source follower,the output of which is coupled to an output node through the operationalamplifier. In embodiments, shallow trench isolation is inserted betweenthe active devices that constitute the photo-diode, source follower, orthe current source, where the shallow trench isolation reduces leakagecurrent between these devices. Further, poly and metal layer crossingsare minimized near the active region edges. As a result, dark current isreduced and overall sensitivity is improved. For example, shallow trenchisolation reduces the leakage from pixel to pixel as well as from pixelto substrate (by making minimal bends). Leakage reduction from pixel tosubstrate improves sensitivity and leakage reduction from pixel to pixelreduces “blooming” (coupling of light from one pixel to the next). Thisenables the active pixel sensor to be integrated on a single substratefabricated with conventional CMOS processing.

In embodiments, the active pixel sensor operates in a number ofdifferent modes including: signal integration mode, the resetintegration mode, column reset mode, and column signal readout mode.Each mode causes the operational amplifier to see a different outputload. Accordingly, the operational amplifier includes a variablefeedback circuit to provide compensation that provides sufficientamplifier stability for each operating mode of the active pixel sensor.For instance, the operational amplifier includes a bank of feedbackcapacitors, one or more of which are selected based on the operatingmode to provide sufficient phase margin for stability, but alsoconsidering gain and bandwidth requirements of the operating mode.

Furthermore, in embodiments, the operational amplifier also includesinternal and external pre-charging circuits that pre-charge the outputstage of the operational amplifier to improve slew rate performance.

As a result, the substrate area and associated costs per chip arereduced.

In embodiments, an array of photo-diodes are arranged in a number ofcolumns to form an imaging device on the common CMOS substrate. Aplurality of amplifiers and analog to digital converters (ADCs),corresponding to the plurality of columns of photo-diodes, are arrangedon the substrate to form active pixel sensors. Each amplifier has aninput coupled to outputs of the photo-diodes in the correspondingcolumn. Each ADC includes one or more reference capacitors that areconfigured so that the corresponding reference capacitors for differentADCs are substantially equal across said substrate. The use of multiplecolumns of active pixel sensors improves bandwidth, and the minimalcapacitance variation across the substrate minimizes image streaking andvariation.

In embodiments, the outputs of the multiple pixel sensors, orphoto-diodes, are examined to determine if a one pixel, or a region ofpixels are in saturation. If so, then the pixel gain is adjusted tocorrect or compensate for the image distortion in the region. Forexample, the gain of the charging amplifier or operational amplifier canbe adjusted.

In embodiments, a high resolution integrated circuit camera can beimplemented using the optical features discussed herein. For example, a2 Megabyte moving picture camera with no moving parts can beimplemented. A large SRAM is used to processes images captured by a CMOSphoto sensor array that is integrated on a chip that performs all othercamera operational and user interface functions. The large SRAM operatesas a buffer for further signal processing.

Further features and advantages of the present invention, as well as thestructure and operation of various embodiments of the present invention,are described in detail below with reference to the accompanyingdrawings.

BRIEF DESCRIPTION OF THE DRAWINGS

The present invention is described with reference to the accompanyingdrawings. In the drawings, like reference numbers indicate identical orfunctionally similar elements. Additionally, the left-most digit(s) of areference number identifies the drawing in which the reference numberfirst appears.

FIG. 1 illustrates a CMOS based active pixel sensor.

FIG. 2 illustrates active device isolation in the active pixel sensorusing shallow trench isolation.

FIG. 3A illustrates an operational amplifier for the active pixel sensorwith variable compensation feedback for stability concerns.

FIG. 3B further illustrates the compensation feedback of FIG. 3A.

FIG. 4 illustrates the operational amplifier for the active pixel sensorwith pre-charge initialization.

FIG. 5 illustrates an imaging device having a plurality of photo-diodesthat are arranged in columns with corresponding ADCs.

FIG. 6 further illustrates the imaging device with an array ofphoto-diodes and supporting circuitry.

FIG. 7 illustrates a successive approximation ADC.

FIG. 8 illustrates a pixel array 800 having regions of brightness.

FIG. 9 illustrates a flowchart 900 for correcting regional imagesaturation.

FIG. 10 illustrates a flowchart 1000 for correcting regional imagesaturation.

FIG. 11 illustrates coarse and fine adjustment using a chargingamplifier.

DETAILED DESCRIPTION OF THE INVENTION

FIG. 1 illustrates an active pixel sensor 100 that detects opticalenergy 101 and generates an analog output 112 that is proportional tothe optical energy 101. In embodiments, the active pixel sensor 100 canbe implemented in a standard CMOS process, without the need for aspecialized optical process.

The active pixel sensor 100 includes a reset FET 102, a photo-diode 106,a source follower 108, a current source 110, an amplifier 114, and ananalog-to-digital converter 116. The photo-diode 106 is coupled to thesource of the reset FET 102 at a discharge node 104. The drain of thereset FET 102 is coupled to a power supply VDD. The node 104 is alsocoupled to the gate input of the source follower 108, the output ofwhich is coupled to output node 111.

During operation, the reset FET 102 is reset so as to charge the nod 104to VDD. More specifically, the FET 102 is turned-on using the gate inputso that the node 104 charges to VDD, after which the FET 104 is cut-off,so that the node 104 is floating. When light 101 is received, thephoto-diode 106 activates and discharges the node 104. The photo-diodecan be a deep n-well or n-well device. The source follower 108 detectsany voltages changes in the node 104 and replicates the voltage changeat the output 111 to produce the analog output 112. The analog output112 is further provided to the amplifier 114 for further processing andanalog-to-digital conversion by the A/D converter 116. The currentsource 110 provides a bias current to the source follower 108. Theactive pixel sensor is typically reset for each image frame that is readusing the reset FET 102.

Any leakage current that flows through the photo-diode 106 without lightinput will discharge the node 104, and therefore reduce the sensitivityof the active pixel sensor 100. In other words, this leakage current (or“dark current”) can interfere with the voltage discharge that isassociated with low energy light 101, so as to reduce the sensitivity ofthe active pixel sensor 100.

Further, any leakage current through the gate oxide of the reset FET 102will also contribute to dark current that reduces sensitivity.

Conventionally, a specialized CMOS process is utilized to minimize darkcurrent. However, in embodiments of the invention, the active pixelsensor 100 is implemented using a conventional CMOS process, even forthe photo-diode 106. This enables the entire active pixel sensor 100 tobe implemented on a single, common, CMOS substrate, which saves cost andintegration time. To do so, the active pixel sensor 100 is configured tominimize bends and stresses in and around the photo-diode 106 and theother devices. For example, shallow trench isolation (STI) can be usedto isolate active devices in the active pixel sensor 100. It has beenfound that minimizing bends and stresses of the metal layout in andaround any Shallow Trench Isolation (STI) tends to reduce leakagecurrent between active devices, as discussed further below.

For example, FIG. 2 illustrates a shallow trench isolation (STI) 204that is configured between first and second active devices 202 and 206in the active pixel sensor 100. The active devices 202 and 206 canrepresent any one of the devices used in the reset FET 102, thephoto-diode 106, or the source follower 108, etc. The active devices 202and 206 are separated by the shallow trench isolation 204. The shallowtrench isolation 204 isolates the active devices 202 and 206 from eachother so as to limit leakage current between these devices. Inembodiments, the shallow trench isolation 204 is an oxide filled trenchthat prevents charge carriers from passing between the active devices202 and 206.

Metal traces 208 and 210 are representative of metal traces that are inand around the active devices 202 and 206, and the shallow trenchisolation 204. The metal traces 208 and 210 are configured so as tominimize bends and stresses that arc in and around the shallow trenchisolation 204. This reduces surface currents that could bypass theshallow trench isolation 204, and therefore improves isolation betweenthe active devices 202 and 206. Further, poly and metal layer crossingsare minimized near the active region edges. The improved isolationbetween the active devices 202 and 206 results in lower dark current,and improved sensitivity for the active pixel sensor 100. For example,shallow trench isolation reduces the leakage from pixel-to-pixel as wellas from pixel-to-substrate (by making minimal bends). Leakage reductionfrom pixel-to-substrate improves sensitivity and leakage reduction frompixel-to-pixel reduces “blooming” (coupling of light from one pixel tothe next). It is noted that the lower dark current is achieved even whenusing a standard CMOS process. Therefore, the photo diode 106 andsupporting circuitry can be integrated on a single CMOS substratefabricated with a standard CMOS process.

The active pixel sensor 100 can be implemented in various consumerapplications such as an optical mouse, a digital camera, or another typeof optical device. Accordingly, the active pixel sensor 100 has severaloperating modes including signal integration, reset integration, columnreset, column signal readout, etc. Each of the operating modes hasdifferent loading and bandwidth requirements. For example, bit-lineintegration speed is not as important as signal readout speed that iscrucial for a good frame rate. However, it is important for theamplifier 114 to be stable (i.e. not oscillate) in each of these modes.However, since the amplifier loading varies with the operating modes, itis preferable that the stability compensation for the amplifier beoptimized for each operational mode. In other words, it is preferablethat the gain and bandwidth not be limited for all of the modes in orderto insure stability for the worst case loading condition.

FIG. 3A illustrates an example of the amplifier 114 according toembodiments of the present invention. FIG. 3A illustrates the amplifier114 as a two-stage operational amplifier having a first amplifier stage302, a second amplifier stage 303, a compensation capacitor bank 304, aninternal pre-charging circuit 306, and an output stage 308.

Referring to FIG. 3A, the first amplifier stage includes inputtransistors 312 and 314 that receive a differential input signal 112from FIG. 1 for amplification. The input transistors 312 and 314 areconnected to a cascode load formed by transistors 316 and 318.Specifically, the drains of transistors 312 and 314 are connected to thecorresponding drains of transistor 316 and 318.

The second amplifier stage 303 receives the amplified output from thefirst amplifier stage 302, and provides a second stage of amplificationand improved voltage headroom for the output of the first stage 302. Indoing so, the second stage 303 includes transistors 324 and 326 thatreceive the differential output from the first stage 302 and transistors320 and 322 connected to the respective drains of transistors 324 and326.

The output (or third) amplifier stage 308 has an input coupled to theoutput of the second amplifier stage 303, and to the compensationcapacitor bank 304, and to the pre-charge circuit 306. Specifically,transistor 310 in the output stage 308 receives the output of the secondstage 303. The output stage 308 further includes transistors 334 and 336connected to the drain transistor 310, and transistor 332. The outputcircuit provides output signal buffering and provides the amplifiedoutput at node 337. The operation of the compensation capacitor 304 andthe pre-charging circuit 306 are described further below.

The compensation capacitor bank 304 includes a plurality of capacitorsthat provide an internal feedback path for the amplifier 114 from theoutput 337. The capacitor bank 304 is configured to provide adequatephase margin for each of the operating modes in the active pixel sensor100. In other words, one or more of the capacitors in the compensationcapacitor bank 304 are selected to provide adequate phase margin forstability based on the output load conditions of the amplifier 114. Forexample, different capacitor settings may be selected for the operatingmodes (signal integration, reset integration, column reset, columnsignal readout) to provide sufficient stability, while also maximizingbandwidth for each of the operating modes.

As discussed above, the phase margin requirements that are required toinsure amplifier stability vary for each of the operating modes of theactive pixel sensor 100. The tuning capability of the capacitor bank 304enables variable feedback so that the amplifier 114 does not have to bedesigned for the operating mode with the worst case stability concern.This enables the bandwidth to be maximized for operating modes wherestability is less of a problem.

FIG. 3B further illustrates the capacitor bank 304 for clarity, whereinone or more capacitors 338 are switched into the op amp to vary thefeedback from the output stage 308. The feedback variation adjusts thegain, bandwidth, and stability of the op amp 114. Generally, morecapacitive feedback reduces the gain and bandwidth of the op amp 114,but improves stability. Less capacitive feedback increases the gain andbandwidth of the op amp 114, but makes the amplifier 114 more unstable.

The op amp 114 is configured to improve the slew rate performance of theoutput stage 308. More specifically, pre-charge circuits are added toimprove the pull-up slew-rate of the output stage 308. For example,internal pre-charge circuit 306 initializes the output stage 308operating point to the threshold of an n-mos device. The gate of N-FET310 is raised to the device threshold so that the device turns onfaster. This raises the operating point of the output stage 308,accordingly, and improves the ability of the output stage to pull-up toa positive output voltage. In other words, it improves the slew-rateperformance to enable the amplifier to pull-up to a positive outputvoltage.

FIG. 4 further illustrates the configuration of the op amp 114 in amulti-bit active pixel sensor 400. As shown, a pre-charge circuit 402 isused to bias the output of the op-amp 114 close to V_(DD), whichimproves the slew rate performance of the device. In other words, theoutput of the op amp 114 is biased close to the positive voltage supplyrail of the op amp.

The feedback capacitor 404 further provides for gain control byadjusting the feedback across the op amp 114, as will be discussedfurther below. It is noted that the capacitor 404 provides externalfeedback for the op amp from output to input. Whereas, the compensationcapacitor 304 provides feedback internal to the op amp 114.

The operational amplifier described herein with variable compensationfeedback is not limited optical imaging applications. This is only oneexample application. The operational amplifier described herein could beused in any application with variable loading environment, so as tomaintain stability without unnecessarily sacrificing gain and bandwidthrequirements.

FIG. 5 illustrates a CMOS imager array 500 according to embodiments ofthe invention that can be used for a digital camera or another digitaloptical device, such as an optical mouse. The CMOS imager array 500includes an array of photo-diodes 106 that can be referred to as pictureelements (pixels), since they represent individual pixels in an image.The CMOS imager array 500 is arranged in a number of columns (e.g., Ncolumns) and rows (e.g., M rows) of the pixels 106. For example, theCMOS imager array 500 can include 672 columns by 480 rows of pixels 106.The pixels 106 can be arranged in a number of columns, (e.g., X columns,shown in FIG. 5 as columns 502-1, 502-2 . . . 502-X) where the output ofeach column is coupled to a single charging amplifier and a single ADC.In other words, the outputs of columns 502-1 through 502-X are eachconnected to a separate charging amplifier 114 and ADC 116. For example,the CMOS imager array 500 can be arranged into 6 columns, so that eachcolumn contains 112 (N/X=672/6=112) pixels 106 in a row.

In optical mouse application, the pixel array is very small (typically30×30) so the pixel size is not very important. This is crucial since ifwe use the standard CMOS process, then a microlens is not used on top ofthe chip which is used to concentrate light onto the tiny pixel. Due tothe absence of microlens, the pixel is much larger than for a digitalcamera (or camcorder)applications. Impact on cost is minimal and thereare cost savings using standard CMOS anyways.

FIG. 6 illustrates an imaging device 600 having a CMOS imager array 500and supporting circuitry for improved image processing, according to thepresent invention. As shown in FIG. 6, each column of the CMOS imagerarray 500 (columns 502-1 through 502-X) is coupled to a correspondingcharge amplifier (604-1 through 604-X) and ADC (606-1 through 606-X).The charge amplifiers 604-1 through 604-X correspond to the chargeamplifier 114 depicted in FIG. 1. The ADCs 606-1 through 606-Xcorrespond to the ADC 116 depicted in FIG. 1. The outputs of ADCs 606-1through 606-X are provided to an imager array controller 608. The outputof the image array controller 608 is a digital image signal 610representing the actual image initially detected by the array of pixels106 that form the CMOS imager array 500. Connections to the chargeamplifiers 604-1 through 604-X are used to adjust the operation of thecharge amplifiers 604-1 through 604-X by the imager array controller608. In other words, the controller 608 provides feedback to adjust thecharge amplifiers 604-1 through 604-X.

Configuring the CMOS image array 500 into a number of columns improvesthe bandwidth of the imaging device 600 compared to connecting all ofthe pixels 106 (not shown in FIG. 6) to a single charging amplifier anda single ADC. The improved bandwidth occurs because the pixel data ofthe columns 502-1 through 502-X is processed in parallel resulting inmultiple streams of data being processed in parallel. Note that theinvention is not limited to the number of pixels and columns that areshown herein. In other words, any number of pixels 106 can be used, andthis can be divided into any number of columns. Additionally, thecolumns can be further sub-divided so that multiple charging amplifiers604 and ADCs 606 are used for each column to create a two dimensionalarray of amplifiers and ADCs. Accordingly, the gain of groups of pixels106 or even a single pixel can be adjusted as will be discussed below.

The ADCs 606-1 through 606-X should be matched so as to exhibitsubstantially the same characteristics during operation. That is, thevariation of the ADCs 606-1 through 606-X should be eliminated orminimized to reduce any difference among the quantization functions ofthe ADCs 606-1 through 606-X. When the ADCs 606-1 through 606-X are notmatched, the image digital image signal 610 that is produced may have anundesirable “streaking” effect caused by the different quantizationfunctions of the ADCs 606-1 through 606-X. The “streaking” effect can berepresented by one column appearing to be a light or dark variationcompared to an adjacent column or columns. Overall, any mismatch betweenthe ADCs 606-1 though 606-X reduces the quality of the digital imagesignal 610.

FIG. 7 illustrates a matched ADC 606 that reduces ADC variationaccording to the present invention. Specifically, FIG. 7 illustrates theADC 606 as a successive approximation ADC. The ADC includes a comparator710, a digital control 716, a calibration circuit 718, a digital controlcapacitor bank 722, and a calibration circuit capacitor bank 724. Thecapacitors within the digital control capacitor bank 722 and thecalibration circuit capacitor bank 724 can be implemented as varioustypes of capacitors, including interdigitated metal finger capacitorsand planar capacitors. The inverting input of the comparator 710 iscoupled to the output of the preceding charge amplifier 604. Theinverting input of the comparator 710 receives a reference signal 702from the charge amplifier 604. The reference signal 702 from the chargeamplifier 604 is an analog signal that the ADC 606 converts into adigital representation 720. A capacitor 704 is coupled to thenon-inverting input of the comparator 710. The capacitor 704 reducesnoise on the reference signal 702 from the charge amplifier 604.

As further shown in FIG. 7, an approximation signal 714 is generated bythe ADC 606. The approximation signal 714 is provided to thenon-inverting input of the comparator 710. The comparator 710 comparesthe reference signal 702 to the approximation signal 714 and generates adifference signal 712. The difference signal is used by the digitalcontrol 716 to adjust the approximation signal 714. The output of theADC 606 is the digital representation 720. The digital representation720 includes the bits which are used to digitally represent thereference signal 702. The digital representation 720 is passed to theimager array controller 608.

The digital control capacitor bank 722 is used to generate and modifythe approximation signal 714. The digital control capacitor bank 722includes a number of binary-scaled capacitors arranged in a voltagedivider network. A capacitor 706 coupled to the non-inverting input ofthe comparator 710 determines the voltage divider ratio (i.e., amplitudeof one bit) of the voltage divider network. The binary-scaled capacitorsare successively switched between a reference voltage or ground. Duringiterative adjustments to the approximation signal 714, only onecapacitor within the digital control capacitor bank 722 is switched. Thecapacitors are switched from largest to smallest, corresponding withsetting the digital representation 720 from most significant bit (MSB)to least significant bit (LSB). The number of capacitors within thedigital control capacitor bank 722 determines the number of iterationsused to successively approximate the reference signal 702. Consequently,the number of capacitors within the digital control capacitor bank 722also determines the number of bits within the digital representation720. In embodiments, 9 capacitors, and therefore 9 bits, are used togenerate the approximation signal 714 and form the digitalrepresentation 720.

Each of the capacitors within the digital control capacitor bank 722 isbased on a reference capacitor C₀. That is, each capacitor within thedigital control capacitor bank 722 is a binary-scaled version of thereference capacitor C₀. The linearity of ADC 606 is determined by thematching of the capacitors within the digital control capacitor bank722. The capacitors within the digital control capacitor bank 722 ofeach ADC 606 can vary over a large substrate. This capacitor variationis simply a result of process variations over the surface of a siliconsubstrate. Referring to FIG. 6, the capacitor variation can cause theADCs 606-1 through 606-X to be mismatched. In turn, the quantizationfunctions of the ADCs 606-1 though 606-X can vary. Accordingly, it isdesirable to limit capacitor variation over the surface of the CMOSimage array to minimize or eliminate image variation or streaking.

In embodiments, a minimum capacitance value C₀ is provided for thecapacitors within the digital control capacitor bank 722 to minimize theADC variation described above. More specifically, if the referencecapacitor C₀ is larger than a minimum value, then the foundary thatmanufactures the CMOS image array can specify a maximum variation of thecapacitors across the substrate, or provide matching data for a givencapacitor size and/or type. This matching data can be used to minimizethe variation of corresponding capacitors of the ADCs 606-1 through606-X over the substrate. This can be done by compensating thecapacitors across the substrate with layout or metal tuning so that thevariation across the substrate is minimized or eliminated.

For example, the fab provides matching data for capacitors implementedwith certain metal width and spacing. From this matching data, theminimum C₀ is determined so that matching is at least ½ bit or better(for an 8-bit converter, this would be better than 1 in 512). The layoutis made symmetric and regular (identical C₀ capacitor repeating manytimes). For example, 2×C₀ capacitance is the original C₀ layout repeatedtwice so as to accurately produce the 2×C₀ capacitance. A large array isformed this way with dummy capacitors at the edges (C₀ cap layouts thatare not used for matched ADC application). The capacitors are formed asphysically close to each other as possible and the layout is madeidentical (both the cap itself and its neighboring regions). As aresult, the present invention provides matched ADCs 606-1 through 606-Xhaving similar quantization functions.

In embodiments, a 9 bit ADC 606 uses 1024 quantization levels. To reducethe statistical variation of the ADCs 606-1 through 606-X to less thanbit, the matching between the capacitors within the digital controlcapacitor bank 722 is made to be better than 1 in 1024. Accordingly, toreduce the statistical variation of the ADCs 606-1 through 606-X to lessthan ¼ bit, the matching between the capacitors within each digitalcontrol capacitor bank 722 is made to be better than 1 in 2048. Thematching data provided by the foundry and the selection of the referencecapacitor C₀ ensures a desired minimum ADC 606 variation. Essentially,the matching data provided by the foundry is based on a manufacturingtolerance.

In embodiments of the present invention, the ADC 606 uses thecalibration circuit 718 and the calibration circuit capacitor bank 724to reduce a voltage offset between the approximation signal 714 and thereference signal 702. The calibration circuit capacitor bank 724 alsoincludes a number of binary-scaled capacitors based on the referencecapacitor C₀ arranged in a voltage divider network. For example, thecalibration circuit capacitor bank 724 can include 6 capacitors. Thecapacitors within the calibration circuit capacitor bank 724 areswitched between the reference voltage or ground to place an offsetvoltage onto the non-inverting input of the comparator 710. Thecalibration circuit capacitor bank 724 shown in FIG. 7 is not limited tousing fewer constituent capacitors than the digital control capacitorbank 722.

In embodiments, the CMOS imager array 700 is configured to process colorimages including, for example, green, red, and blue light. To do so,typically, 50% of the pixels 106 are configured to process green light,25% process red light, and 25% process blue light. When using multiplecolumns 702-1 through 702-X and corresponding ADCs 606-1 through 606-Xfor improved bandwidth, it is important for the ADC variation to beminimized across the CMOS imager array 700. In one embodiment, threesuch ADCs are used for processing green color signals and threeadditional such ADCs are used to process red and blue, withoutperceivable image artifacts.

It is important to note that the same color pixels go through the samephysical hardware (Charge amplifier & ADC). For example, the greenchannel might be at the bottom of the array and the red/blue channelmight be at the top of the array. If a color is split between these twotop/bottom ADC's you might see more mismatch due to the physicaldistance separation on the chip. Putting all the same-color pixelsthrough the same hardware reduces any artifacts due to mismatch or exactchannel gain etc. This is important since the gain might not be ascarefully controlled in some applications as the ADC matching.

A problem can occur in digital imaging devices where the pixels (e.g.,photo-diodes) in one region of the CMOS array 500 saturate with brightlight, and distort the resulting image. For example, FIG. 8 illustratesan N×N array 800 of pixels having 3 regions 802, 804, and 806 of thepixels 106. The region 802 is indicated as processing relatively brightlight, the region 804 is indicated as processing medium light, and theregion 806 is indicated as processing dark light. If a single amplifierand ADC were used the process the image from the array 800, then thebright region 802 could saturate the entire resulting image.

Fortunately, the above mentioned problem can be addressed by adjustingthe gains of the charging amplifiers 604 and ADCs 606 to compensate forthe relative intensity of the light in the different regions of CMOSarray of pixels. In order to do so, each region 802, 804, and 806requires its own charging amplifier that can be gain adjusted. Forexample, in the region 802, the corresponding charging amplifier(s) 604can be adjusted so as to reduce the gain and mitigate the effect of thehigh intensity input. In the region 804, the corresponding chargingamplifier(s) are adjusted to account for a medium intensity input. Inthe region 806, the corresponding charging amplifier(s) 604 can beadjusted to increase the gain to boost the dark light input. In summary,the gain for groups of pixels 106, or even a single pixel 106, can beadjusted so as to mitigate saturation effects of the array 800.

Referring back to FIGS. 3A, 3B, and 4, the gain adjustment can beaccomplished by adjusting the gain of the operational amplifier 114. Forexample, the feedback capacitor C_(f) 404 (FIG. 4) can be adjusted toraise or lower the gain of the operational amplifier 114, and therebyadjust the gain of a pixel 106 or a group of pixels 106. It isnoteworthy that the gain adjustment is done in analog hardware, asopposed to software, which improves bandwidth and the speed of theadjustment. Whereas, software corrections occur after the fact, and oncesaturation occurs information is already lost. Accordingly, the presentinvention prevents saturation from occurring and improves image quality.

In embodiments, two op amps are used for gain adjustment. In otherwords, op amp 114 includes first and second op amps 1102 and 1104 asshown in FIG. 11. Op amp 1102 performs a coarse gain adjustment and theother op amp 1104 performs a fine gain adjustment. The coarse adjustmentcan be performed during a calibration period, and the fine adjustmentcan be performed during the real-time image processing.

The operation of the array 500 can be optimized by implementing acalibration phase, prior to processing the actual optical data. Forinstance, during the calibration phase, the array 500 can receive anoptical image and correct any potential saturation, or over exposure, byadjusting the gain of the operational amplifier or amplifiers 114 forthe corresponding pixels. Referring to FIG. 6, the operationalamplifiers 604 can be adjusted. This is further described in theflowchart 900 that is shown in FIG. 9, and described further below.

In step 902, a first image of a scene is received using an array ofpixels. In step 904, regions of saturation of the first image aredetermined on a pixel-by-pixel basis or by regions or groups of pixels.In step 906, the gain of the one or more pixels is adjusted to correctthe regions of saturation. In step 908, a second image of the scene iscaptured using the adjusted pixel gain values, thereby compensating forany saturation regions.

In embodiments, further fine gain adjustments are performed during thesecond image capture, whereas coarse gain adjustment is performed in thefirst image capture. In other words, real-time fine gain adjustments areperformed during the second image capture. For example, FIG. 11 can beused for coarse and fine gain adjustments.

The invention is further described by the flowchart 1000 in FIG. 10. Instep 1002, an array of analog outputs from one or more pixels isreceived. In other words, a first image of a scene is taken to determinesaturation values of regions of the image. In step 1004, the array ofanalog outputs is amplified according to one or more gain values andcorresponding amplifiers. In step 1006, the array of analog outputs isdigitized using an array of ADCs. In step 1008, the digitized pixeloutputs are examined to determine relative pixel light intensity, on apixel-by-pixel basis, or on a regional basis. In other words, thedigitized pixel outputs are examined to determine saturation values ofregions of the image. The regions can be defined by n×n pixels, orindividual pixels. In step 1010, the gain of one or more pixels isadjusted to prevent image saturation, and improve image quality. Inother words, the charging amplifier gain is adjusted to preventsaturation and improve image quality. In step 1012, a second array ofanalog outputs from the one or more pixels is received a second time forprocessing with the adjusted gain values. In summary, the saturationvalues of each region are used to adjust the gain characteristics ofeach region prior to capturing a second, final image of the scenethereby avoiding over exposure of the image.

Using the optical imaging features described herein, a high resolutionIntegrated circuit camera can be implemented. For example, a 2 Megabytemoving picture camera with no moving parts has been proposed. A largeSRAM is used to processes images captured by a CMOS photo sensor arraythat is integrated on a chip that performs all other camera operationaland user interface functions. The large SRAM operates as a buffer forfurther signal processing.

CONCLUSION

Example embodiments of the methods, systems, and components of thepresent invention have been described herein. As noted elsewhere, theseexample embodiments have been described for illustrative purposes only,and are not limiting. Other embodiments are possible and are covered bythe invention. Such other embodiments will be apparent to personsskilled in the relevant art(s) based on the teachings contained herein.Thus, the breadth and scope of the present invention should not belimited by any of the above-described exemplary embodiments, but shouldbe defined only in accordance with the following claims and theirequivalents.

1. A circuit comprising: a complementary metal oxide semiconductor(CMOS) substrate; a first active device mounted on the CMOS substrate; asecond active device mounted on the CMOS substrate; a shallow trenchisolation (STI) etched in the CMOS substrate between the first activedevice and the second active device, wherein the STI is etched toisolate the first active device from other elements mounted on the CMOSsubstrate; and a plurality of metal traces in and around the firstactive device, the second active device, and the STI, wherein the metaltraces are configured to minimize bends and stresses in and around theSTI.
 2. The circuit of claim 1, wherein the STI is etched to isolate thefirst active device from the second active device.
 3. The circuit ofclaim 1, wherein the STI is etched to reduce leakage current between thefirst active device and the second active device.
 4. The circuit ofclaim 1, wherein the first active device is an operational amplifier. 5.The circuit of claim 4, wherein the operational amplifier has a feedbackcompensation circuit adjustable for a plurality of operating modes, andwherein the feedback compensation circuit is adjusted to provide aminimum stability for each of the operating modes to prevent theoperational amplifier from oscillating.
 6. The circuit of claim 1,wherein crossings between metal layers in the CMOS substrate andpolysilicon layers in the CMOS substrate are minimized near edges of atleast one of the first active device and the second active device. 7.The circuit of claim 1, wherein the circuit is an active pixel circuit,and wherein the STI is configured to reduce current leakage betweenpixels in the active pixel circuit.
 8. An active pixel circuitcomprising: a complementary metal oxide semiconductor (CMOS) substrate;a first active device mounted on the CMOS substrate; an operationalamplifier mounted on the CMOS substrate, the operational amplifierhaving a feedback compensation circuit adjustable for a plurality ofoperating modes of the active pixel circuit, the feedback compensationcircuit adjusted to provide a minimum stability for each of theoperating modes to prevent the operational amplifier from oscillating;and a shallow trench isolation (STI) etched in the CMOS substratebetween the first active device and the operational amplifier, whereinthe STI is etched to isolate the first active device from elements ofthe operational amplifier mounted on the CMOS substrate.
 9. The activepixel circuit of claim 8, wherein the feedback compensation circuit inthe operational amplifier includes a bank of capacitors, one or more ofwhich capacitors is selected based on the operating modes.
 10. Theactive pixel circuit of claim 8, wherein the operating modes comprisesignal integration mode, reset integration mode, column reset mode, andcolumn signal readout mode.
 11. The active pixel circuit of claim 8,further comprising a pre-charging circuit that pre-charges an outputstage of the operational amplifier.
 12. The active pixel circuit ofclaim 8, wherein the operational amplifier comprises: a first amplifierstage that receives a differential input signal for amplification; asecond amplifier stage that receives the amplified output from the firstamplifier stage and provides a second stage of amplification; acompensation capacitor bank; an internal pre-charging portion; and anoutput amplifier stage coupled to the output of the second amplifierstage, the compensation capacitor bank, and the pre-charging portion,wherein the pre-charging portion is operable to improve the pull-up slewrate of the output amplifier stage.
 13. The active pixel circuit ofclaim 8, wherein the STI is etched to isolate the first active devicefrom the operational amplifier.
 14. The active pixel circuit of claim 8,wherein the STI is etched to reduce leakage current between the firstactive device and the operational amplifier.
 15. The active pixelcircuit of claim 8, further comprising a plurality of metal traces inand around the first active device, the operational amplifier, and theSTI, wherein the metal traces are configured to minimize bends andstresses in and around the STI.
 16. The active pixel circuit of claim15, wherein crossings between the metal traces are minimized near atleast one of the first active device and the operational amplifier. 17.The active pixel circuit of claim 15, wherein the first active device,the operational amplifier, the STI, and the metal traces are integratedon the CMOS substrate, and wherein the CMOS substrate is fabricatedusing a conventional CMOS process.
 18. The active pixel circuit of claim8, wherein crossings between metal layers in the CMOS substrate andpolysilicon layers in the CMOS substrate are minimized near edges of atleast one of the first active device and the operational amplifier. 19.The active pixel circuit of claim 8, wherein the STI is configured toreduce current leakage between pixels in the active pixel circuit.
 20. Acircuit comprising: a complementary metal oxide semiconductor (CMOS)substrate; a first active device mounted on the CMOS substrate; a secondactive device mounted on the CMOS substrate, wherein crossings betweenmetal layers in the CMOS substrate and polysilicon layers in the CMOSsubstrate are minimized near edges of at least one of the first activedevice and the second active device; and a shallow trench isolation(STI) etched in the CMOS substrate between the first active device andthe second active device, wherein the STI is etched to isolate the firstactive device from other elements mounted on the CMOS substrate.